Globalization project free essay sample

More specifically, after the acquisition of Max Factor Japan and success in its SK-II line, questions are raised about whether global expansion is feasible and profitable as a franchise. De Cesare ran this skin-care line in Japan, but he reported directly to Lafley. This is crucial because global expansion would require Lafley’s approval in budgeting and organizational support. PG recently went through major organizational changes over a period of six years known as O2005. This created huge questions in the strategy that would be put together in the case of a global expansion for SK-II. Within the U.S. Procter Gamble originally followed an organizational structure consisting of seven different divisions that were furthermore shattered into 26 distinct categories. Each category had its own RD, supply management and marketing. In addition, the international organization was divided into four regions that were then broken down individually by country. We will write a custom essay sample on Globalization project or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The GM’s of each country and each of the four individual regions were uniquely held responsible for earnings. This would create conflict and resistance in unifying the company due to cultural issues affecting sales in certain countries. Originally, PG was a failure in Japan. They failed to understand and accommodate to local culture and its demands, as well as ignoring the fierce competition. Believing in Japan as a key place for the beauty business, the decision to pursue success was held. Finally, in 1999, when Jager was named CEO serious organizational structures were started: O2005. RD spending was increased by 3% while reducing expenses. Cutting costs was made to become more efficient overall as an organization, but it would come at a painful price by reducing the workforce and taking a hit of $1. 9 billion dollars over five years. More importantly, he changed the structure of four regional VP’s to seven GBU’s (Global Business Units). This came with a change in responsibilities and mentality. The key to this reconstruction of organization was based on the principle that constant innovation of products will promote growth. To encourage risk taking and innovation, the heads of the GBU’s and management were placed on a performance-based compensation which could dramatically increase earnings. The ultimate goal was to standardize the RD, manufacturing and marketing across the company disregarding culture as much as possible. This was meant to increase communication between former countries GM’s and become more efficient and effective in innovating products. Porter’s Diamond-Model: Using Porter’s five forces model in PG’s structure and strategy to face the international markets, it is convenient to analyze it using the Porter Diamond analysis. These include: factor conditions, demand conditions, related and supporting industries, firm strategy and its structure and rivalry, government, and chance. The theory suggests that all these factors are interconnected. First of all, the SK-II is a skin-product line originated in Japan that requires a six to eight step procedure to have its max benefits. It is intended to be priced as a high-end product vs. the Olay in the United States. PG have a huge competitive advantage which is their enormous RD power. It allows for their global RD groups to work together through the company’s Beauty Care GLT. This permits the technologists of RD to make changes to the product as needed to individual cultures. Thanks to PG’s already established global structure, individual needs are more effectively and efficiently met. Speaking solely about SK-II expansion, the massive global technologically based RD can serve as a competitive advantage. Japan is the world’s leading consumer of beauty products per capita. Thus, the demand for highly effective beauty products is always off the charts in Japan. PG put their best technologist across the world (especially Japan) to create a multi-step product that not only cleaned, but also moisturized and toned the skin. Basically, it was a 360 type of product. Due to market differences, Olay used the same technology but portrayed as a cheaper version to successfully sell in the US. With more efforts in packaging and selling, SK-II created a loyal consumer in Japan even with all the competition from other companies. About 45% of total SK-11 sales came from Taiwan and Hong-Kong. These two modern Chinese descendent populations followed trends in beauty from Japan. As a result, it was a successful launch that inspired furthermore expansion into the rest of China. Japan being the Paris/New York/Milan of the Asian continent, women in nearby markets are influenced by the larger market share holders. Sk-11 proven success and loyal base can be another competitive advantage. In 1999, under CEO Jager, the company was going through a colossal structural change known as O2005. As a result, new people were given new responsibilities as well as shifting of jobs. This created a cross-company confusion of who does what. The best way to describe the old structure of the company is through the following quote by former VP of overseas operations Mr. Walter Lingle:† We must tailor our products to meet consumer demands in each nation. But we must create local country subsidiaries whose structure policies and practices are as exact a replica of the US Procter and Gamble organization as it is possible to create. This talks about an organization where operations of products are managed independently within the local market by a GM. With O2005, standardization becomes the main goal. Instead of putting economical responsibilities on GMs’ like before which stumped growth, each of the seven business units were now responsible for profits. When SK-II was created and brought to the market, a unified RD team worked on the technology behind it. A standardized process was used in the manufacturing of the product. In  contrast, as I explained earlier, Olay and SK-II used different packaging and sailing methods to more effectively penetrate different markets (US and Japan). This was an important factor in success of the product. Local research was needed to do this. PG’s O2005 conflicts with the way SK-II is proposing to handle a global expansion plan. Thus, in order to increase the chances of success in international markets outside of Japan, PG will have to conduct local research in individual markets. Refusal to do not tweak O2005 for the SK-II expansion can result in a loss. As mentioned in the case study, de Cesare has three different options in routes to take in order to increase growth of Max Factor Japan; Expansion within Japan, go into mainland China, or tap the European market. Europe: European women come mostly from developed countries. Therefore, they are very educated when it comes to fashion, culture, and beauty. Beauty-line products are nothing new in these waters. Unlike the US and other markets, European women appreciate high-end beauty products and are almost as demanding as the Japanese women. It is no surprise that some of the world’s most renowned brands are from Europe. Some of the brands mentioned in the case are Chanel, Dior, and Clinique among others. Not only do these brands hold the grand majority of market share, but it is equally distributed between them. This creates a very low threat of a new entrant in the market. These brands form significantly high entry-barriers due to their popularity and loyal customer base. To make things worse, the threat of substitution for SK-II is very high in its current market because a company like Clinique is as popular as Coca-Cola is in the beverage industry. These companies have the money and other resources to create equal, if not superior products to SK-II. Finally, the bargaining power of suppliers is low. Yet, due to the competition level in the European market, the consumers have high bargaining power. Japan: One of the main reasons that Max Factor Japan had harsh time in its first 12 years under PG was because of the lack of understanding of the distribution systems in Japan. To add on, the women in Japan are extremely ‘picky’ when it comes to beauty products. Your product has to truly differentiate and gain loyalty from the consumers in order to remain as a leader of the Japanese beauty market. This reasoning explains why the threats of new entrants are very low. Japan has also slowed down in growth to 6% in the two years prior to 1999. So, not only is there an established oligopoly, but the growth is limited. Why would any company that doesn’t know the Japanese market want to even make an attempt at a suicidal mission? Due to this fierce competition within the big market share holders, innovation is crucial. Clearly, the threat of a substitute product developed by a competitor in the market is relatively high at any given point. The constant competition within the main players allows the consumer to have a high bargaining power. However, the bargaining power of supplies is low in Japan. China: The case study shows a growth rate of 28% in the previous two years (before 1999) in the beauty market. The case study also talks about a potential 30-40% annual growth in the future. Thus, the opportunity for growth is tremendous. The market share is still ‘up for grabs’. From this we can conclude the threat of new entrants is very high. China is unique because it there is an immense social class gap. A lot of mainland China is very poor. In fact, the average monthly salary of the Chinese woman is equal to a three month supply of SK-II! In the other hand, the special economic zones in China vary drastically in culture and economy. The astronomical growth in the beauty market in China takes some pressure away from competition within the bigger players. Some main European and Japanese brands are already expanding in China. Due to its early stage though, the bargaining power of both suppliers and buyers is low. Nevertheless, the risks of substitutes are high once again because of the RD power of the current competitors. It is important to have in mind that SK-II business model is to sell as a high-end product. While the very few citizens with the big bucks can provide a lot of revenue, it is also depended on SK-II being able to capture the limited higher-income society. Recommendations and conclusion: Throughout this analysis, we take a look at Porter’s five forces model to determine the pros and cons of global expansion as proposed by de Cesare. A recurring factor in the global expansion is the threat of a substitute. It is clear there exists sharp and fierce competition within and Japan and in global markets. This can be very costly. Max Factor Japan should take a very careful look at individual markets it wishes to pursue and identify distribution channels as well as a target market to have success. Learning from the mistakes of others is the cheapest way to establish a competitive strategy. Overall, I suggest that the safest and most logical route is to keep pursuing larger market share within Japan. SK-II already has a loyal consumer base, and through the innovative BIS, sales can significantly increase for a low cost and risk. In order to successfully expand into other markets, I believe that while still a significant 3% market share, it is not big enough to compete against the bigger players in the world. In Europe, a possible $10 million in sales by year four while absorbing a $1-2 million annual loss for the first few years is a risk not worth taking. Some of the world’s biggest players already dominate an educated and loyal consumer market. In addition, the distribution channels used by Max Factor Japan are completely different from the popular perfumeries in Europe. It is true that the UK is seeing massive growth in the skin-care market, but the research conducted wasn’t very clear. If success is expected out of a lot of money and effort from PG, then more in-depth research should be conducted. At last, the Chinese market is very young. There is tremendous opportunity to make money in China. It is of significant value to point out the success of SK-II in similar cultures to the rest of China such as Hong Kong and Taiwan. The fact that SK-II is a high end product, it is subject to import duties of 35-40%. Although this is true, break-even is projected within three years. Due to the differences in economies in different sectors of China, it is crucial that Max Factor Japan determines which group of people or cities it is going to target, even if it goes against the PG overall goals. Perhaps experimenting in Shanghai or Beijing would be a good trial before expanding into the rest of China. It is extremely important to not let the big European and other Japanese players conquer the huge Chinese market first; that’s if SK-II ever wants to become a world known brand.

How to Solve an undefined local variable Ruby Error

How to Solve an undefined local variable Ruby Error In  Ruby, you dont have to declare variables, but you do have to assign something to them before they can be referred to. If youre referring to a local variable that doesnt yet exist, you may see one of two errors. Ruby NameError Messages NameError: undefined local variable or method a for # NameError: undefined local variable or method a for main:Object Note:  There might be various identifiers in place of  a  above. This is an example where the code will generate the Ruby NameError message since the variable  a  hasnt yet been assigned to anything: puts a How to Fix the Error Variables must be assigned before they can be used. So, using the example from above, fixing the error is as simple as doing this: a 10 puts a Why Youre Getting This Error The obvious answer is that youre referring to a variable that hasnt yet been created. This is most often due to a typo but may happen when refactoring code and renaming variables. You might also see the  NameError: undefined local variable Ruby error if you intended to enter a string. Strings are understood when they exist between quotes. If you didnt use quotes, Ruby will think you meant to reference a method or variable (that doesnt exist) and throw the error. So, look back over your code to see what this variable is supposed to be referring to, and fix it. You may also want to search for other instances of the same variable name in the same method - if its wrong in one place, it may be wrong in others.

Administrative Ethics-HIPAA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Administrative Ethics-HIPAA - Essay Example The specifics of these objectives are highlighted under Title II and I respectively. Section one embodies the protection of health covers for workers and their families. This part is meant to ensure easy transfer of health insurance covers from an old employer to a new employer or at least guarantee the continuation of cover in the event of job loss. On the other hand, section II details administrative specifics under Administrative Simplification (AS) (Banks, 2006). The AS section dictates requirements in establishing nationwide standards, which define the manner in which healthcare transactions are conducted electronically. It also defines the specific identifiers for employers, insurance plans and healthcare providers. This section helps simplify administrative challenges emerging from requirements of portability. The AS section also addresses issues of privacy and security of patients’ information and records. Since its ambitious implementation, HIPAA has expanded its infl uence on to major health issues such as security, confidentiality, privacy and simplification (Banks, 2006). In a nutshell, HIPAA promises an effective and efficient mode of disseminating and sharing electronic information in the healthcare sector. The compliance deadline was 2003 and a slight extension for harmonization of some minor plans. Since 2003, the plan has gained widespread adherence by various players including health insurers, employer sponsored healthcare plans, healthcare service providers and clearing houses in the sector. In spite of its positive outlook and gains made, HIPAA still raises numerous challenges with regard to its implementation. This paper reviews one of the significant challenges in HIPAA’s implementation by highlighting a newspaper article covering the issue of disclosure. The article under highlight appeared in the New York Times on 3rd July, 2007. The piece of work by Jane Gross is titled â€Å"Keeping Patients’ Details Private, Even From Kin.† Disclosure Issues in HIPAA’s Implementation HIPAA dictates the rules of disclosure and non-disclosure for Protected Health Information (PHI). However, Gross (2007), indicates that a number of studies have shown that a number of healthcare providers are applying HIPAA inappropriately. These providers and practitioners under them apply the regulations overzealously by being excessively and unnecessarily prohibitive. These acts have left caretakers, family members, law enforcement officers and public health officers unable to access information that is essential for their operations and life. Gross’ article presents this challenge by citing various real-life situations in which family members have been barred from staying with their kin or assessing their treatment chart information while undergoing treatment. Gross cites Mr. Nussbaum’s case in which he was barred from staying with his father or checking his treatment chart as an example of misinte rpretation of the act (Gross, 2007). A similar case involving Ms. Banks saw her drive from Oklahoma to Tampa to get information about her mother because this could not be disclosed over the . On arrival, she had to spend another 24 hours before she could get the disclosure from the doctor involved, simply because the nurse feared going against HIPAA (Gross, 2007). These examples show the frustrations that family and other parties such as researchers have when seeking patient information. The bigger challenge is that while there are â€Å"good faith nondisclosures,† there are also numerous cases of â€Å"bad faith nondisclosures† that unnecessarily bar access to information. For example,

Renters Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Renters - Essay Example If it there is no comparison, one should lower the tax rate. To report rental income, one can use the form 1040 that comprises of all the schedules from A to F, J, L, M, & SE, and the other form 1040 with few information and no schedules. If your buildings, apartments, or rooms provide only trash collection, heat, and light among others, one should only report the rental income and expenses on part 1 in schedule E form 1040. If the apartment provides extra services that are essential to tenants’ convenience, like maid service, regular cleaning, and changing linen should report the rental expenses and income in Schedule C form 1040. It indicates considerable services of the apartment or business as the real estate dealer One can include rental income from the real state property owned by the taxpayer with the income they are reporting for their convenience store by including it on the schedule C used to report sales activities. This may be helpful as in most cases one may be subject to risk on activities carried out as business or trade. Typically, schedule C highlights the loss and profit from the business. It underlines basic services imposed for tenant’s convenience, and the total rental expenses and income (Anderson, 2011). The rental income is an income that is subject to self employment taxes. It is worth noting that, rental income is indicated on schedule E with Supplemental loss and income of tax return. Such incomes are derived from corporations, rental income, royalties, and trusts just to name a few. Nevertheless, even though such are categorized as income, it is not earned until one rent a personal property rather from real estate. Rental income takes place when one invests money in estates, which is return on investment in the form of rent. Therefore, the rental income can only be subject to self-employment taxes if there is investment obtained. However, if the apartment does not give

Brave New World And White Noise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Brave New World And White Noise - Essay Example The authors show how technology has formulated men’s lives and ways of living and how this has influenced their emotions and finally the outcome of their relationships. Whereas Brave New World is a landmark fictional work of the modern literature. DeLillo has been awarded multiple accolades for his ‘breakout’ work White Noise including the National Book Award in 1985. In contrast, Brave New World was published in 1932 where Huxley seems to prophesize and communicate the major struggles which dominated modern life along with the arms race that so powerfully underlines the role of modern technology in today’s world. Brave New World is a fictional novel belonging to the utopian literature genre, where the society essentially portrayed is called dystopia (the opposite of utopia) where things go badly awry. It is a parody of Well’s idealistic work Men Like Gods. As the name suggests, the setting is an imaginary society that is organized or synchronized to create an ideal conditions for human beings by scientifically orchestrating the near robot like individuals who are devoid of pain, hatred, neglect, and every other evils in the world. It is a bitterly satiric novel that was written to portray the horrors that engulf a planned totalitarian society, where the individual loses the all subtle human emotions including the sense of love in the above process. On the other hand, White Noise is set in the 1980’s with a small American town as the main backdrop. This is not a fictional state of a speculation but records the real society in the time where the individuals try to decipher the meaning of truth, that is, death in this case. The backdrop is also the age of the 80’s, which as per DeLillo’s interpretation is an age obsessed by media and where the key drivers of the society are rampant material consumption and putting up a facade to get a position of distinction in the society. In fact mass communication tools co uld be most indispensable to democracy and most abusive in the hands of a dictator. In his novel, Huxley portrays individual images of the character but they tend to take a back seat to the overall horror of a fictitious totalitarian society where the interest of the state takes precedence over the likes, opinions and thoughts of the individual characters. In such a society all the components of a press is usually controlled by the Elite and serve a purpose which is bigger and irrelevant to a common individual. In novel, the author caustically portraits the stability in the society where the individuals are programmed to be devoid of subtle human emotions that essentially gives rise to a sense of pain. The usage of ‘genetic engineering’ and ‘conditioning’ are shown as a technique to illustrate everybody is satisfied with their living. Here science is used for furthering technology, the State talks about scientific progress, what it essentially means is furt hering of technology, not in increase in horizon of scientific understanding through exploration and experimentation. In contrast in White Noise, the technology proves to be universal in its occurrence where it is both threatening and uplifting at the same time. All through the novel, technology becomes inextricably a part of the quality of regular life as are the human characters themselves. DeLillo’s narrative seamlessly weaves between the sounds of mechanical and human sounds that

Co Action Effect And The Audience Effect Psychology Essay

Co Action Effect And The Audience Effect Psychology Essay The co-action effect occurs when a higher level of performance is present when surrounded by other individuals performing the same task. It can be applied to a variety of tasks competitive and non-competitive e.g. Sports, multiplications, spelling etc. It is also perceived that an individuals work rate can alter by merely watching the individual carry out a specified task. This is known as the audience effect. This theory however has positive and negative effects based on the degree of competence with the task given to the subject. If they are skilled in the task, their level of performance will heighten. However, the opposite will occur if the subject is not very capable with the task. These two theories are categorised under Social facilitation. Q2. Describe two psychology studies on this area of human behaviour stating their findings and conclusions. The co-action effect was first perceived in 1898 when a test was carried out by Norman Triplett. His theory was on cyclists and the speeds they reached when firstly, racing against each other and then racing individually against a stopwatch. He noticed that racing against each other rather than against the clock alone increased the cyclists speeds. He then tested his thesis in a controlled lab experiment where he gave children simple tasks to perform on their own and then with a partner. He again found that co-action resulted in improved results in the children. He concluded that the bodily presence of another contestant participating simultaneously in the race serves to liberate latent energy not ordinarily available (Triplett, 1898). An example of the audience effect was noted when psychologist J.Michaels 1982 carried out an investigation on pool players. First he assessed their ability and rated them either above or below average. He then stood by them to see if his presence had any effect on the way they played. The conclusions of the investigation showed that the more abled players performed to a higher calibre and the less abled decreased in ability proving that in fact even though the audience effect can have positive results, they can also facilitate negative ones too. The presence of an audience arouses humans and affects our ability to perform a task. This arousal stimulates us, so that if we are doing something we are good at, we do it better. However, we are already aroused when performing tasks in general. An audience overseeing the task can sometimes act as an over stimulant to certain individuals and interfere with the task at hand. Q3. Evaluate theories and research into the basis of social power including obedience and conformity. Power was found to be one of the most effective reasons as to why an individual feels the need to follow through with what another says to them. Psychologists have undertaken many years of experiments to try to figure out what types of powers are in our society and how they shape and influence the way we live today. There are two main points in social power that can alter an individuals thought process. Obedience and Conformity. Throughout this essay you will read how Psychologists have discovered the roles in which these two influences affect the society we live in. Conformity is described as the type of social influence involving a change in belief or behaviour in order to fit in with a group.  This form of influence can occur in two separate ways. A majority influence whereby the feelings and behaviours of a collective set of individuals within a group can alter or change the opinion of the minority, and the minority influence whereby an individual will change the opinions of the masses in a group. One way in which a majority may influence is known as public compliance. Solomon Asch (1956) set out to encompass what this type of conformity was by using a simple exercise. The aim of the experiment was to see how subjects reacted when faced with an unambiguous task. Would they be influenced by a groups behaviour or would they stick to their own belief that they knew to be true. Aschs test was carried out on 123 participants and all were American males. The subjects were asked to distinguish between three lines and pick a line that was of the same size as a fourth individual line. The procedure was carried out with the individual subject sat around a table of confederates all instructed to give incorrect answers with the subject having to answer last. The procedure was conducted 18 times and out of the 18 guesses, the confederates were told to guess incorrectly 12 times as to add a sense of validity to the experiment. The results showed that 75% of the participants gave incorrect answers at least once suggesting that they had conformed to the group ideology of thinking. Asch then repeated the test and altered a control of no confederates giving wrong answers. Asch found that there were mistakes made about 1% of the time. The conclusion of the experiment shows that there was a high amount of conformity when faced with pressures from a collective group. Questions must be asked however on the actual validity of the experiment itself when looking at real life and moreover the demographic used in the experiment. The participants were asked a simple question, yet if faced with a question that holds more substance, would the participant still conform to such a degree? The experiment has been repeated on many occasions by changing the type of sample used to English scientists (Perrin and Spencer 1980) and youths on probation (Perrin and Spencer 1990). Some more recent research suggests that Aschs experiment is merely an unpredictable phenomenon (Lalancette and Standing 1990). The ethics involved are quite negligible when considering other experiments that will be discussed later in the essay. Participants must have felt tricked once they found out the other participants were actually confederates, and perhaps the subjects may have felt distressed when being put in a difficult situation. We can go back further in the 1900s and see other forms of experiments used to analyse the use of majority conformity. Muzafer Sherif (1935) investigated responses to ambiguous statements by using the auto kinetic affect. This is when very small movements of the eye make a spot of light in a darkened room appear to move because the eyes lack a stable frame of reference. Sherifs participants were tested individually, being asked to say how far the light moved and in what direction. Their answers varied considerably. However, Sherif then requested the participants work collectively to estimate the movements. Their answers started to become quite similar demonstrating the influence of a groups ideology on an individual. The results of this study can also be questioned too. As the answers were ambiguous and there wasnt an obvious answer it could be argued that participants are more likely to conform as they are never completely certain of their answer. This methodology therefore affects Sherifs interpretation of conformity as it is not very reliable. The same ethical questions can be asked when looking at this experiment. The participants were deceived and additionally put under pressure to conform to a groups way of thinking which can cause stress. We can also analyse conformity through the use of a minority influence. Although conformity is generally led by the influence of groups, individuals are occasionally able to reverse this tendency and change the opinions of people around them. This is known as the minority influence. If an individual makes a strong, convincing case it can increase the probability of changing the majoritys beliefs and behaviours. One iconic example of this occurring was the suffragette movement at the start of the 20th Century. The faction started out with a very limited amount of members with strong opinions that women should have the equal rights. Initially their opinions were unpopular but as time went by, the minority influenced the majority with their concise and logical arguments and eventually it led to the majority conforming to the same beliefs. To test this theory a Psychologist known as Moscovici (1969), conducted an experiment similar to that of Asch. 32 groups of 6 were chosen with 2 confederates in each group. The groups were shown a slide of varied shades of blue and asked to convey what colour was perceived. Moscovici et al proposed that if the confederates had that of a different opinion to the group and stuck to that opinion consistently, they could alter the groups views. The confederates consistently said the slides were green. The findings of the experiment showed that 32% gave the same answer as the minority at least once. This suggests that although it is a minute amount of impact on the results, there is some kind of conformity to the minoritys way of thinking. This experiment unusually doesnt hold many ethical problems. Although participants were deceived initially, the deception was moderately low and the tasks given were of a low level of stress. We could go as far as to say that this study was ethically acceptable. However, there are a few criticisms of study. The participants were females, Eagly and Carli (1981) study suggests that females are more likely to conform to ideologies of a group than that of men and so this questions how reliable the study actually is. And so we understand that conformity doesnt necessarily have a boundary that requires a person to act in a certain way. Obedience can be considered entirely different. Conformity does not require us to react in a specified manner whereas with obedience we are instructed or ordered to do something and these orders stem from a higher authority. We can relate this to history when we look at the atrocities that shaped Nazi Germany in World War I and II. Millions of defenceless Jewish people (and many other ethnicities) were slaughtered by Nazi soldiers under the influence of the government ran by Hitler. The heinous crimes committed had many questions to be answered but mainly how were the crimes committed and why?! During the Nuremberg trials, many of the high ranking officials were put to trial over what they had done with the only claim to their innocence being that they were simply, obeying orders. These claims were blatantly thrown out of court and a stereotype was claimed stating t hat a Germans DNA was simply different to that of every other human. Yet a man named Stanley Milgram wanted to understand if there were any truth to these claims. In 1963 he set up a psychology experiment to test if any human, not just German, could be put under such strict obedience pressures, that they could commit these horrific crimes against humanity. His participants were American men aged 20-50 and were from various occupation backgrounds. The study was carried out at Yale University, where they were taken to a lab and introduced to an experimenter dressed in a lab coat (confederate). They were then introduced to what the participant thought was a fellow experimenter however he would be the accomplice in the experiment. These gentlemen had fabricated that he had a heart problem to add to the validity of the study. Participants were then given a summary of the experiment. The mock investigation was to distinguish the roles between teacher and learner. A fake ballot would decide what role would be decided for the two subjects with the actual participant always allocated the teacher role. The procedure of the experiment consisted of a simulated electrode machine in the room the teacher was placed in that would be used to administer an electric volt to the student in another room. The isolation from the two subjects was to add to th e already dissociation created. Every time the student answered a question incorrectly from a sheet the teacher, (participant) was given. The participant would control the shock machine and the teacher would purposely answer the questions incorrectly. The experimenter would push the participant and provoke them to administer the shocks even if they insisted on stopping. Surprisingly, some 65% of the teachers gave what they thought was the maximum amount of punishment (450 volts of electric shock). Based on these results, Milgram suggested a theory known as the Agency Theory. He states that when faced with a stressing situation, humans attribute their responsibilities to an authority figure. This experiment completely changed the impact on social policy, but came with many ethical and situational complications. The ecological validity of the experiment should be questioned as the experiment was conducted within a laboratory and it could also be argued that the participants used were more suggestible as they volunteered for the experiment. Although participants were debriefed to a satisfactory manner (84% felt glad to have participated), the stress endured within the experiment could have possibly had long-term affects to the subjects. Milgram himself states, The degree of tension reached extremes rarely seen in experimentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Subjects were sweating, tremblingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦on one occasion we observed a fit so violent that it was necessary to call a halt to the experiment. Deterred by the ethical background of the experiment mentioned a man known as Zimbardo wanted to carry out an experiment to back up Milgrams study to add validity through using a less controlled environment. Male students applied for a study about prison life. 21 participants were chosen to be guards and prisoners (10 prisoners, 11 guards). The prisoners were arrested at home unexpectedly and blindfolded to disorientate them whilst taking them into their controlled prison cells (the basement of Yale University). Many symbolic items were used to associate the prisoners with their roles (ID numbers, nylon caps, orange jump suits). The guards also had many garments so they could associate themselves with their specified role (clubs, mirrored aviators, handcuffs). Over the two week period, the subjects became more and more connected to their specified role. The guards became more autocratic and the prisoners became tolerant of being punished for the miniscule of issues. The study shows how the guards and prisoners conformed to their roles given especially the prisoners through the use of obedience. However, the ethical issues developed throughout the case were even more severe than that of Milgrams. Five prisoners had to be released early due to depression and the whole experiment had to be cancelled only 6 days into the study out of an initial two weeks. So here we have seen how obedience and conformity influence humans and the test we have created to observe how these characteristics can be measured and implemented in real life. On the way we have seen many ethical questions arise as well as the validity of the actual experiments. If we can understand anything from the theories present, we must understand that the experiments involve human beings, who are probably, the most unpredictable sources to all the theories. Thankfully, we now have Ethical guidelines as a result of these experiments; human beings are malleable objects and must be handled with care. Hopefully the results from these investigations on obedience and conformity are used to help human beings in the future and not control them.

Biography Of Arthur Clarke :: essays research papers

Biography of Arthur Clarke   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur C. Clarke, a science fiction author, has had a very interesting life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur was born on December 16, 1917, in Minehead, England. He was the oldest of four children. His two brothers were Frederick and Michael, and his sister's name was Mary. As a child, he enjoyed science very much. He lived on a small farm, and enjoyed frequent trips to the nearby ocean. When he was 13 years old, he constructed his own telescope, and changed a bike light to transmit sound along the path of light it gave off. Arthur made his first literary connections by writing in the school newspaper.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He attended elementary, Middle, and high school in his home town, and then later went to King's College in London, where he made honors in Math and in Physics in 1948.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After Arthur had finished college, he became a member of the Royal Air Force.Then later he became the assistant editor of Science Abstracts, a science magazine. After quitting his job as the assistant editor, he decided to become a full-time science fiction author.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur has never been married, and still, to this day, is a bachelor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Clarke is a very successful writer. In fact, he is considered to be one of the most successful science fiction authors ever! He has written many books, including: Hammer of god; 2001, a space Odyssey; Prelude to Space; The Sands of Mars; Islands in the Sky; Against the Fall of Night; Childhood's End; Expedition to Earth; Going into Space; and Earthlight. Arthur has also written a few Nonfiction books, like Interplanetary Flight, and The Exploration of Space. Also, one day, he had an argument with a colleague, and said, â€Å" When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.† (Science Digest )   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur has won many prestigious awards, including the UNESCO Kalinga Prize, The Franklin Institute gold medal, the Robert S. Ball award, and the Aviation/Space Writers Association Award.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An interesting fact is that Clarke proposed a belt of communication satellites, and now they exist. He also helped make the idea of space travel popular in the sixties. For some army history, Arthur joined the RAF in 1941.